VOL. 5, No. 2
Abstract: This paper is an attempt to describe the situation of higher education in Asia including the challenges it faced as well as the open and distance elearning initiatives by different countries and universities. Data gathering was done through review of online documents and websites as well as documentation of the different initiatives especially by the member institutions of the Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU). Descriptions of open education practices on MOOcs, OERs, and open access publications were presented and their potential to transform higher education in the region was discussed. Challenges encountered in the implementation of ODeL programs were articulated as well as some suggestions on how to address them.
Keywords: open distance elearning (ODeL); Asia; higher education; MOOCs; open universities; open education practices
Asia consists of 48 countries, 36 of which had been specifically classified as developing countries based on World Bank Country Classifications i. The region is home to about 60% of the world’s population and ranks first among the regions of the world in terms of population. The population median ii age is 30.7. During the last 10 years, enrolment in higher education in Asia has been observed to increase by over 50% (Mok, 2016). Dunrong (2015), on the other hand, also observed that “Ongoing population growth in many developing countries of the region leads to a steady increase in the number of young people. At the same time, the demand for higher education continues to expand” (p. 14).
This growth in the population and the demand for higher education in Asia is coupled with the projection that “… the 21st century will be the Asian century” (Mahbubani and Chye (2015) as cited by ICEF Monitor, 2015) which, as these authors also said “is overdue and inevitable”.
UNESCO (UNESCO, 1988 as cited by Songkaeo, and Yeong, 2016) defines higher education as:
…all types of education (academic, professional, technical, artistic, pedagogical, long distance learning, etc.) provided by universities, technological institutes, teacher training colleges, etc., which are normally intended for students having completed a secondary education, and whose educational objective is the acquisition of a title, a grade, certificate, or diploma of higher education. (p. 3)
This definition mirrors how the different cultures in Asia see higher education, which can also explain the surge in the demand for access accompanying the increase in the age group who should be availing themselves of higher education: a goal and the means to success. This is very much reflected in the statements below by Breitenstein (2013):
… the difference between Asian and American education systems is cultural. Throughout much of Asia, education is seen as the only path to success. Parental demands, fear of failure, competition, and pride are fueling Asia’s academic ascension. Simply put, children in Asia study with a purpose.
Elaborating on the role of education, Breitenstein (2013), further said that education is the “driver of social mobility” which implies economic success as well.
The role of higher education in national development has been widely recognized, especially in terms of teacher training to improve the quality of education and graduates who will man and run the industries, govern the nation, and push forward innovations through research and creative thinking (Asian Development Bank, 2011).
This paper aims to 1) describe the challenges faced by higher education in Asia; 2) discuss the different open distance elearning (ODeL) initiatives by the different countries and universities; and 3. draw insights on how the ODeL initiatives can pave the way for higher education transformation in the region.
Data and information presented in this paper were gathered though a combination of the following methodologies: content review of relevant documents, resources and previous studies made available online including websites of organizations; and process documentation of the various initiatives by the members of the Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU).
Higher education in Asia faces a lot of challenges especially in the 21st Century. Some of these challenges are as follows:
In addition to what has already been observed during the last 10 years or so, there has been and there will continue to be a tremendous increase in the demand for higher education in the coming years. In 2018, 9.4% of the Asian population are in the age range of 15-24, the age profile who are and who should be in higher or tertiary education. The number is projected to increase steadily over the next years to 14.4% of the total population by 2030 iii This projection implies the population sector which should be provided higher education opportunities in the region.
This was further emphasized by the International Council on Open and Distance Education (ICDE) (2015) which highlighted the need to respond to the recognized education needs globally, of which, Asia, as the biggest region in terms of population needs to consider as well in addition to its responsibility to contribute to the global agenda. ICDE noted the need to shape the post-2015 agenda and address the issues of “access, equity and quality learning outcomes” and respond to the burgeoning number of students enrolling in higher education, which is projected to be more than 400 million by 2030. iv This implies a projection of almost 58 million to be catered to by Asian higher education institutions, which number about 6580. v There is, therefore, this question of whether these higher education institutions will be able to accommodate the projected increase in enrollment following the current system of delivering instructional content, especially in brick and mortar settings.
It is often said that we are now at the 4th Industrial Revolution or a technological revolution whose “scale, scope and complexity will result in transformation that will be unlike anything humankind has experienced before” (Schwab, 2016). Schwab (2015) described the 4th Industrial Revolution as follows:
Neither technology nor the disruption that comes with it is an exogenous force over which humans have no control. All of us are responsible for guiding its evolution, in the decisions we make on a daily basis as citizens, consumers, and investors. We should thus grasp the opportunity and power we have to shape the Fourth Industrial Revolution and direct it toward a future that reflects our common objectives and values.
To do this, however, we must develop a comprehensive and globally shared view of how technology is affecting our lives and reshaping our economic, social, cultural, and human environments. There has never been a time of greater promise, or one of greater potential peril. Today’s decision-makers, however, are too often trapped in traditional, linear thinking, or too absorbed by the multiple crises demanding their attention, to think strategically about the forces of disruption and innovation shaping our future.
In the end, it all comes down to people and values. We need to shape a future that works for all of us by putting people first and empowering them.
This characterization of the 4th Industrial Revolution has implications on how higher education should respond in terms of the skills and talent of graduates it will produce and how the higher education system should work with other stakeholders.
Specific for Asia, it has been projected that by 2050, “the world will see a dramatic shift in global economic power away from advanced countries and toward Asia” (ICEF Monitor, 2015). Bhandari (2015 as cited by ICEF Monitor (2015)) further argues that the dynamics in economic growth is “reflected in the landscape of higher education…. especially at a time when economic growth in many rapidly developing Asian economies is linked to knowledge production, advanced skills, and the rising demand for higher education.”
One aspect of higher education transformation is in terms of the relevance of curriculum and instruction (ADB, 2011) to the current context of industry which further implies the need for a strong academia-industry partnership. Higher education institutions cannot isolate themselves from the real world of work which will be the destination of their graduates.
It is no longer unusual to hear of tertiary students needing to relocate or change home base, especially in Asia where the workforce can easily transfer from one country to the other.
Yung Chi Hou et al. (2017), observed that “student mobility within Asia has been driven and encouraged due to economic growth, national competitiveness, and regional development in the early twenty-first century. One manifestation of the trend is a significant increase in the number of students moving within and amongst Asian campuses, such as China, Japan, South Korea, and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries” (p. 12).
Higher-education institutions should be able to address the concern of students transferring from one country to the other, usually as a result of their parents transferring residences as a result of the demand for work.
Skills for the 21st Century skills has become a buzz phrase, especially among academic institutions, in their efforts to respond to the fast-changing needs of life and work environments. However, a deeper look into these skills and what exactly are needed in the 21st Century points to the need to include ethical values, digital citizenship, independent learning, a sense of responsibility, effective time management and an integrated way of learning.
With the belief that increasing higher education enrolment would “improve the quality of the population and enhance national competitiveness in the globalizing world” massification of higher education in Asia has been observed from the 1980s onwards (Mok & Jiang, 2016). This massification, however, impacts on the quality of education, given the limited funding and resources allotted to education especially among the developing nations. This limited funding affects school facilities and learning materials, as well as teachers’ qualifications and credentials which should be continuously improved through continuing professional development.
Together with the concern of making higher education accessible, the equity of learning outcomes should also be ensured. Every learner should have an equal opportunity to learn what is being taught and achieve the learning goals set for each of the courses that he/she has enrolled in. This can be a function of access to quality learning materials and relevant resources and activities associated with learning and the applications of such learnings even after the completion of formal education.
The role of higher education institutions is not confined within its bricks and mortar structure. They have and should practice social responsibility not only to their direct stakeholders (students and parents) but also to the community where they are operating and society in general or what is now known as University Social Responsibility (USR), an adaptation of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Reiser (2008 as cited by Vasilescu, et. al., 2010) defines the USR concept as “a policy of ethical quality of the performance of the university community (students, faculty and administrative employees) via the responsible management of the educational, cognitive, labour and environmental impacts produced by the university, in an interactive dialogue with society to promote a sustainable human development” (p. 4178).
Education should not operate in silos. While there is a specific mission attached to educational institutions, they should also function with consideration of what is happening with the rest of the world. The role of education in achieving the SDGs should be recognized given that education, especially open education, should be at the core of each SDG. Results of a survey conducted by UNESCO (2017) show that:
… universities increasingly collaborate on sustainable development issues, engage with sustainable development networks and look for examples on how [they] can integrate the different SDGs into the curriculum, research, campus management, etc.
This action has become part of the expectation for universities to which they should also respond.
Most open and distance eLearning initiatives in Asia are undertaken by open universities operating in the region. Jones, et. al. (2009), in an attempt to define or describe an open university, offered the following:
…open universities are political institutions concerned with broad issues that the higher education system cannot or will not deal with; such as building capacity, individual opportunity and social justice; encouraging change in the higher education system and nation-building. If these are the broad aims then each particular Open University also has its own mission related to the local political and social context in which it works. (p. 2)
Most open universities offer their programmes and courses in the distance education mode, which is characterised by the geographical separation of learners from the teachers and the university. This mode of instructional delivery further enhanced the capability of open universities to practice open learning and be more inclusive and accessible compared to conventional or residential universities. The geographical separation is bridged by using technology in the delivery of instructional services as well as learner support. In Asia, more than 70 institutions offer programs in the distance education mode of instruction. These institutions are present in about 20 countries and are either operating as stand-alone universities or as part of a conventional academic institution. Further, these institutions/universities operate at a wide range of scales/levels. Likewise, their systems of operations vary in terms of how instruction is delivered to the students from residential open university to fully online or distance eLearning operations. Indira Gandhi Open University (IGNOU) in India which is considered to be the world’s largest university, for instance, boasts of over three million students as of 2017 (Noronha, 2017). The University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) has only just over 4,000 students enrolled in its degree programmes but is operating in a full distance eLearning mode.
In addition to IGNOU, seven other mega open universities are operating in Asia. Table 1 shows the mega open universities in the region and their respective enrollment figures.
Table 1. Mega open universities in Asia and their enrollment figures vi
Institution |
Country |
Founded |
Enrollment |
1985 |
4,000,000+ |
||
1958 |
1,974,343 |
||
1974 |
1,326,948 |
||
1987 |
800,000 |
||
1992 |
650,000 |
||
1982 |
450,000 |
||
1984 |
300,000 |
||
1972 |
210,978 |
All these open universities are members of the Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU) and are part of this big network with members collaborating to push the frontier of distance education and open learning in the region.
The Cape Town Declaration on Open Education viii in 2007 described open education as “not limited to just open educational resources. It also draws upon open technologies that facilitate collaborative, flexible learning and the open sharing of teaching practices that empower educators to benefit from the best ideas of their colleagues. It may also grow to include new approaches to assessment, accreditation and collaborative learning”. Opensource.com ix added that “proponents of open education believe everyone in the world should have access to high quality educational experiences and resources”.
Open universities, the way most of them are operating in Asia, unfortunately, are not totally open in the sense of the definition of open education. Many still require payment of tuition fees from the students themselves or through some form of scholarship, and have admission requirements, qualifications, or some schedules to follow in an academic or school year which serve as barriers to education and learning for many. In recent years, many open universities in Asia adopted various forms of open education:
… the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) has been given the mandate to implement the 'MOOCs plus credit recognition and transfer' initiative, which would enable all MOOCs courses from Malaysia and abroad to be registered into the Malaysia's MOOC platform and be given credit”. The purpose is to “encourage flexible learning among students, reduce the duplication of learning and recogni[z]e the lessons and experiences gained outside the conventional classroom”.
Open Direct Learning through dual mode universities and through MOOCs should be accorded appropriate priority because of India’s existing and latent strength in terms of IT capability, probability of near-term expansion of IT connectivity and enormous interest evinced by leading Universities and Institutions in promoting ODL education.
MOOCs started to become popular in China in 2013, and the courses often benefit those living in remote areas. The Ministry of Education said there are more than 10 MOOC platforms in China, and over 460 universities and colleges have introduced more than 3,200 online courses through those platforms, with more than 55 million viewers.
The China College MOOC, which was established in 2014 by China's Higher Education Press and Internet giant Netease became one of the largest platforms for MOOCs in China together with www.icourse163.org, which hosts more than 120 universities and colleges and offers 1,822 courses ranging from professional curricula in higher education, vocational education, innovation and entrepreneurship (Linagyu, 2018). XuetangX xiii, on the other hand, China’s first and biggest MOOC platform, was founded in 2013 by the Tsinghua University under the supervision of the China Ministry of Education Research. It is considered to be the fastest growing MOOC platform with 11 million users (Shah, 2017), more than 500 partners, and hosting more than 1400 courses.
According to Ying (2015), MOOCs in China “can be looked upon as a technological innovation useful in solving problems related to education and higher education [in China], and that the value of MOOCs to open universities comes mainly in the form of educational equality and resource sharing”.
JMOOC had three official platforms, “gacco”, “OpeN Learning Japan”, and “OUJ MOOC”. “gacco” (http://gacco.org/) is an open edX-based platform managed by NTT DoCoMo and NTT Knowledge Square. “OUJ MOOC” is a multimedia e-textbook taste platform developed by CCC-TIES Consortium and managed by OUJ. “OpeN Learning Japan” (http://open.netlearning. co.jp/) is a domestic integrated learning support platform managed by NetLearning, Inc. The member institution which plans to launch a MOOC from JMOOC can choose one of the official MOOC platforms in considering the compatibility between course content and course management platform. They consider multiple platform strategy induces diversified learning strategies and pedagogies to cope with a wider range of potential learners.
The challenges faced by higher education in Asia necessitate not just surface changes but transformation or “radical change that orients the organization to new direction and an entirely different level of effectiveness”.
ODeL initiatives in Asia could spearhead or spur the transformation of higher education in the region through the following:
ODeL initiatives in the region relaxed and, in some cases, totally removed many of these barriers. MOOCs, for instance, have open admission and do not charge any course fees, which, in a way, facilitates equity of access to education and learning. As such, education and learning have become ubiquitous – that is, available to anyone, anywhere, anytime, using any type of interconnectivity and appropriate device. This system of learning also caters to the needs of mobile learners. Open universities, as indicated in the previous discussion, are in a position to vigorously pursue open and ubiquitous education since they are not constrained by physical resources like classrooms. Moreover, university resources can be expanded and distributed through the creative use of modern information and communication technologies.
The role of open universities in transforming higher education can be summed up in the following excerpt from the specific call for action of The Paris Message (ICDE, 2015) for:
… higher education to be transformed in order to be able to deliver change in scale and speed of response, realising the potential of the digital technologies within a humanistic framework. Online, Open and Flexible programmes represent an essential component of the global response, recognising the systemic and cultural diversity in Higher Education systems.
It should be noted, however, that equity of access is not enough. Open universities can also ensure equity of learning outcomes by facilitating the learning process for all learners. This can be done through the use of open educational resources (OERs) which removes the restriction of cost to accessing learning materials. Likewise, through the universal design of learning resources, learning management systems and other collaterals for learning; inclusivity, likewise, should be put in place to take into consideration not only learners who are economically deprived but also those who are physically challenged. Technology or digital exclusion can also be addressed through the accessibility and inclusivity programs of open universities by making instructional content, learning resources, and learner support accessible using any device.
The ODeL system also makes it easier to customize learning programs well-suited to the psyche of Asian learners. As discussed, “Asian learners study with a purpose” and with social mobility and financial rewards as motivations, many of these learners will seize open learning opportunities, implying the potential success of these initiatives in the region – success in terms of enrollment and completion.
The culture of “coopetition” or cooperation integrated into the conventional relationship of competition can likewise be a transformative mechanism in higher education. While competition is still present in terms of knowledge artifacts production and student enrollment and graduation, the culture of openness and sharing can be the gauge of an institution’s accomplishments. The collaboration happening among the members of AAOU is one example of sharing and coopetition — in this case, among open universities in the region. This presence implies a potential influence of AAOU on the role of open universities in transforming higher education in the respective countries where they operate. Likewise, AAOU serves as a platform for higher education collaboration for research, institutionalizing the acceptable quality assurance framework for education, as well as harmonizing standards to facilitate a credit transfer mechanism.
Further, the immediate application of learning in the workplace can spur action research to address current industry concerns. This mechanism of converging theory and practice, or “praxis”, can facilitate theory grounding, which can also spur knowledge construction and production which is a major role of higher education. Industry partnership is essential in this mechanism as learners also bring industry context into the learning environment and, likewise, take the university context into the work environment, which provides an opportunity for higher education to shape the direction and the nature of the industry.
The shaping of the values of the people who will shape the future of industry rests upon higher education, which produces the workforce for industry and can also be responsible for their continuous capability-building programmes and research developments.
However, implementing these mechanisms to transform higher education in the region are not without challenges as well. These challenges include:
Asia is faced with opportunities for tremendous economic and industrial growth in the next 10 or 20 years. These opportunities, however, will have to be supported by an education and learning construct or framework that will not only respond to the needs of progressing industry but also by improving the overall welfare of the people and their environment. Higher education is thus seen as having to undertake this responsibility as well as consider projected higher education needs in the coming years.
Open and distance eLearning, as practiced by both open and residential universities in the region can play a major role in transforming higher education. Opening learning opportunities can impact tremendously in preparing workers to achieve the potential of the region, especially, in economic and regional development. Likewise, regional cooperation such as the Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU) can promote collaboration and open sharing, and standardization and harmonization to institutionalize a quality assurance system and thus facilitate a transfer credit mechanism which is also aligned with lifelong learning initiatives recognition and accreditation. While opportunities to transform higher education abound through ODeL, pursuing this also implies addressing some concerns for the full realization of ODeL’s potential.
Asian Development Bank. (2011). Higher education across Asia. An overview of issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29931/regional-cooperation-higher-education-asia.pdf
Breitenstein, D. (2013). Asian students carry high expectations for success. USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/08/04/asian-students-carry-high-expectations-for-success/2615483/
dela Peña Bandalaria, M., & Alfonos, G. (2015). Situation MOOCs in the Developing World Context: The Philippines Case Study. MOOCS and Open Education Around the World, (pp. 243-254). In C. J. Bonk, M. M. Lee, T. C. Reeves, &, T. H. Reynolds (Eds.). (2015). MOOCs and open education around the world. London: Routledge.
Dunrong, B. (2015). Shifting Demographics in Higher Education in Asia. International Higher Education, (47). Retrieved from https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe/article/download/7957/7108
Jones, C., Aoki, K., Russman, E., & Schlusmans, K. (2009). A comparison of three open universities and their acceptance of technology enhanced learning. Retrieved from http://libeprints.open.ac.uk/20657/1/Final_paper_081jones.pdf
Ibrahim, M. M., & Rahim, M. K. I. A. (2018). MOOCs Continuance Intention in Malaysia: The Role of Interactivity and Enjoyment. Journal of Global Business and Social Entrepreneurship (GBSE), 4(11). Retrieved from http://gbse.com.my/v4no10JANUARY2018/Paper-158-.pdf
ICEF Monitor. (2015). Is Asia ready to be the next higher education superpower? Retrieved from http://monitor.icef.com/2015/06/is-asia-ready-to-be-the-next-higher-education-superpower/
Lee, T. (2015). A Case Study of MOOC at KNOU: KNOU MOOC for Knowledge Sharing. In Bowon, K. (Ed). MOOCs and educational challenges around Asia and Europe. KNOU Press. Retrieved from http://asemlllhub.org/fileadmin/www.asem.au.dk/publications/MOOCs_and_Educational_Challenges_around_Asia_and_Europe_FINAL.pdf
Liangyu. (2018). Across China: Massive open online courses make waves in Chinese education. XinhuaNet. Retrieved from http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-01/19/c_136907421.htm
Mok, K.H., & Jiang, J. (2016). Massification of higher education: Challenges for admissions and graduate employment in China. Centre for Global Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.researchcghe.org/perch/resources/publications/wp5.pdf
Ka-ho, J.M.. (2016). Massive expansion of universities in Asia raises tough questions on social mobility. In the Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/massive-expansion-of-universities-in-asia-raises-tough-questions-on-social-mobility-54680.
Nasongkhia, J., Thammetar, T., Chen, S., & Photipussa, P. (2015). Presentation: ASEM Learning Forum on Lifelong Learning; Bali, Indonesia; 12-15 March 2015.
Noronha, R. (2017). Indira Gandhi National Open University: World's Largest University Open to all. India Today. Retrieved from https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20170821-ignou-education-courses-enrolment-number-world-largest-university-1029050-2017-08-11
Pushpanadham, K. (2015). MOOCs Initiatives in India: A Path Towards Universalizing University Education. In Bowon, K. (Ed.). MOOCs and educational challenges around Asia and Europe. KNOU Press. Retrieved from http://asemlllhub.org/fileadmin/www.asem.au.dk/publications/MOOCs_and_Educational_Challenges_around_Asia_and_Europe_FINAL.pdf
Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What it Means, How to Respond. World Economic Forum. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/.
Shah, D. (2017). The 1st Asia-Pacific MOOCs Stakeholders Summit Takes Place in Thailand. Class Central. Retrieved from https://www.class-central.com/report/1st-asia-pacific-moocs-stakeholders-summit/.
Shah, D. (2017). A Massive List of Free Online University Course Providers from Around the World. FreeCodeCamp. Retrieved from https://medium.freecodecamp.org/a-massive-list-of-free-online-course-providers-from-around-the-world-925766226f46
Shahar, F.M. (2016). Malaysia to become first country to develop credit recognition policy for online courses. Retrieved from https://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/01/122766/malaysia-become-first-country-develop-credit-recognition-policy-online-courses
Songkaeo, T., & Yeong, L. H. (2016). Defining higher education issues and challenges in southeast Asia/ASEAN within the international context. Retrieved from http://www.headfoundation.org/papers/2016_-_2)_Defining_Higher_Education_Issues_and_Challenges_in_Southeast_AsiaASEAN_within_the_International_Context.pdf
UNESCO. (2017). How does Higher Education contribute to achieving the SDGs? Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/how-does-higher-education-contribute-achieving-sdgs
UNESCO. (2014). Five Asian Open Universities adopt open licensing and MOOCs. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/five_asian_open_universities_adopt_open_licensing_and_moocs/
Vasilescu, R., Barna, C., Epure, M., & Baicu, C. (2010). Developing University Social Responsibility: A Model for the Challenges of the New Civil Society. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4177–4182. Retrieved from https://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042810007007/1-s2.0-S1877042810007007-main.pdf?_tid=1d0d6802-a8df-472f-9baa-6b896e0524c5&acdnat=1529887490_59fb86ca1ccbf9c118dc2f43d7b2df58
Watters, A. (2013). Top ed-tech trends of 2013: MOOCs and Anti-MOOCs. Retrieved from http://hackeducation.com/2013/11/29/top-ed-tech-trends-2013-moocs
Yamada, T. (2015). MOOC phenomena in Japan: JMOOC and OUJ-MOOC. In Bowon, K. (Ed.). MOOCs and educational challenges around Asia and Europe. KNOU Press. Retrieved from http://asemlllhub.org/fileadmin/www.asem.au.dk/publications/MOOCs_and_Educational_Challenges_around_Asia_and_Europe_FINAL.pdf
Ying, W. (2015). A Case Study: The Development of MOOCs in China. In Bowon, K. (Ed.). MOOCs and educational challenges around Asia and Europe. KNOU Press. Retrieved from http://asemlllhub.org/fileadmin/www.asem.au.dk/publications/MOOCs_and_Educational_Challenges_around_Asia_and_Europe_FINAL.pdf
Yung Chi Hou, A. Hill, C., Hui-Jung Chen, K., Tsai, Sandy, & Che, V. (2017). A Comparative Study of Student Mobility Programs in SEAMEO-RIHED, UMAP, and Campus Asia: Regulation, Challenges, and Impacts on Higher Education Regionalization. Higher Education Evaluation and Development, 11(1), 12-24. Retrieved from https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/HEED-08-2017-003
Author
Dr. Melinda dela Peña Bandalaria is the Chancellor of UP Open University (UPOU) and the President of the Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU). She is a staunch advocate of democratizing access to quality education for the vulnerable sectors of the society, which has led to numerous public service works and research to serve lifelong learners by enabling their socio-economic transformation, has contributed to the country’s progress and to the sustainable development goals. Email: mbandalaria@upou.edu.ph
Cite this paper as: Bandalaria, M. d.P. (2018). Open and Distance eLearning in Asia: Country Initiatives and Instructional Cooperation for the Transformation of Higher education in the Region. Journal of Learning for Development, 5(2), 116-132.